From: Subject: Biblical Leadership Styles Date: Wed, 3 Mar 2010 22:29:50 -0600 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://web.archive.org/web/20080323152302/http://www.industryinet.com/~ruby/sa_biblical_leadership.html X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.5579 Biblical Leadership Styles

Biblical Leadership Styles

http://www.umjc.o= rg/kesher/issue4/Dauerman.htm =20

by Stuart Dauermann=20

A long-time friend, mother of three, married for over twenty = years,=20 Cheryl (not her real name) sat in my office and cried. Her abusive = husband=20 had beaten her for years, and now, despite her strong biblical=20 convictions, she simply could no longer contemplate intimacy with = him. He=20 had confessed his sin to her, and therefore =93required=94 that = she forgive=20 him and make herself vulnerable to him again. He who had once = controlled=20 her with his fists, now sought to control her with his confession. = The=20 leaders of his congregation took his side. In their view, Cheryl = was=20 obligated to receive him back, and return to square one. When she = had=20 wanted to join the congregation, one of the elders told her not = to. =93If=20 you join, Cheryl, we=92ll have to denounce you from the pulpit. = Your husband=20 says you have not been submissive to him in accord with the = teachings of=20 Scripture.=94 Indeed, Cheryl had herself heard the leader denounce = a female=20 member from the pulpit for just this reason.=20

Does this true story make your blood run cold? It does mine. = And it=20 illustrates all too well some of the abuses that are perpetrated = every day=20 when power is abused, even by well-meaning people, in the name of = God.=20

The =93P-Word=94 Despite the abuses often associated with the = term, power=20 is not a dirty word. Rather, power can be either a blessing or a = curse. In=20 the hands of God, it has always been a source of blessing. When = power is=20 in the hands of someone else, however, even the hands of servants = of God,=20 we have cause to be jittery.=20

God can be trusted totally; but can we really trust others? If = you are=20 like me, you often see power in the hands of others as at least an = incipient threat. And isn=92t it interesting that the first use of = the term=20 =93power=94 in the Bible connects it with threat? The term is used = by Laban,=20 who tells his son-in-law Jacob, =93I have the power to harm you; = but last=20 night the God of your father said to me, =91Be careful not to say = anything=20 to Jacob, either good or bad=92=94 (Genesis 31:29). It is = comforting to know,=20 as this quotation illustrates, that God cares about abuses of = power, and=20 sooner or later intervenes to make his will known.=20

Power as a Necessary Component of Leadership

When we speak of leadership, we must speak of power; power in = the hands=20 of the kinds of ordinary people God raises up to lead his people = in=20 accomplishing his work. Power is an intrinsic component of = leadership.=20 This truth was highlighted in ground-breaking leadership studies = at the=20 Fuller Seminary School of World Mission in Pasadena, California. = From=20 studies of over 600 biblical and post-biblical leaders, Professor = of=20 Leadership Studies Dr. J. Robert Clinton defines a leader as =93a = person=20 with God-given capacity and with God-given responsibility who is=20 influencing a specific group of God=92s people toward God=92s = purposes for the=20 group.=94 [1] This definition comprises several components. First, = a leader=20 is a person with God-given capacity for leadership. This capacity = comes=20 from a combination of natural abilities, acquired skills, and = spiritual=20 gifts.=20

Second, a leader is a person with God-given responsibility for = the=20 group he leads. Ultimately, a leader is called by God and is = accountable=20 to him not only for accomplishing the tasks to which his group is = called,=20 but also for nurturing their well-being. Leadership studies aridly = refer=20 to these spheres of responsibility as =93task-behaviors=94 and=20 =93relationship-behaviors.=94 It is easy to see that failures in = leadership=20 generally fall under one or the other of these labels: leaders = either fail=20 to adequately address the tasks to which their group is called, or = they=20 fail to adequately care for the people in the group. It is in this = latter=20 area that we find most occasions for abuses of power.=20

The third component of this definition reminds us that a leader = is a=20 person =93who is influencing a specific group of God people toward = God=92s=20 purposes for the group.=94 It is in this area of influence that we = encounter=20 the phenomenon of power.[2] Inevitably, leaders employ various = means to=20 exercise influence.=20

Some of those means are unintended. For example, a leader may = have=20 great influence over a group of followers because he looks like = their=20 previous leader. He did not plan it that way, and there is nothing = he has=20 done or does to enhance the effect. Yet, he has great influence = due to an=20 unintended factor: here, physical characteristics. In this article = we are=20 more concerned with intended means of influence. These fall under = two=20 broad categories: leadership styles, and power forms (also termed=20 =93influence means=94). The remainder of this article will explore = each of=20 these in turn.=20

Leadership Styles Hersey and Blanchard define leadership style = as the=20 consistent behavior patterns that [leaders] use when working with = and=20 through other people as perceived by those people. [3] Leadership = styles=20 vary from highly directive to highly non-directive. This range of = styles=20 can best be understood by means of a simple continuum: =

Highly Directive Directive = Non-Directive Highly=20 Non-Directive
|----------------|---------|-------------|---------------= -----| =
Figure 1.=20

The Leadership Style Continuum [4] Different leaders tend to = exhibit=20 one mode of leadership style to the exclusion of the others. = Leadership=20 studies, however, have demonstrated that leaders increase in=20 effective-ness to the degree that they vary their leadership style = according to the situation they are addressing and the maturity = level of=20 the followers they are leading at that particular time.[5] Among = the=20 biblical leaders analyzed in the leadership concentration at the = School of=20 World Mission, Paul the Apostle stands out as one who demonstrated = a=20 capacity to vary his leadership style according to the situations = he was=20 facing and the maturity level of his followers. Ten Pauline = leadership=20 styles have been identified: three at the highly directive side of = the=20 continuum, two directive, two non-directive, and three at the = highly=20 non-directive end of the continuum. Examining these styles will = help us=20 better understand the implications of leadership style both in the = Bible=20 and in our own context.=20

Highly Directive Pauline Leadership Styles

Paul was a highly goal-oriented leader with a strong = personality. One=20 would expect that his leadership styles would all be highly = directive.=20 This is not so, however: he was a multi-style leader. Yet three of = his=20 leadership styles were highly directive.=20

1 The apostolic leadership style is a method of influence in = which the=20 leader assumes the role of delegated authority over those for whom = he/she=20 is responsible, receives revelation from God concerning decisions, = and=20 commands obedience based on role of delegated authority and = revelation=20 concerning God=92s will. [6] Paul demonstrates this style = consistently, and=20 more than once refers to it as a privilege he chooses not to = exercise (see=20 1 Cor. 7:6; 2 Cor. 8:8; 10:6-11.) In 1 Corinthians 5:1-13, Paul = confronts=20 the congregation concerning the =93wicked man=94 (v. 13), who is = living with=20 his father=92s wife (v. 2). Note especially his strong words of = authority in=20 4:21, where he asks, =93What do you prefer? Shall I come to you = with a whip,=20 or in love and with a gentle spirit?=94 It is his most highly = directive, or=20 one might say, authoritative, leadership style.=20

Can this style be employed today? Opinions vary. Prolific = author and=20 church growth specialist C.
Peter Wagner is currently = researching a=20 book on what he terms the =93new Apostolic Reformation=94, a = leadership model=20 gaining ground in independent churches.[7] Wagner believes the key = distinctive of such churches is the authority structure, in which=20 authority is (allegedly) delegated by the Holy Spirit to = individuals=20 rather than to structures. According to Wagner, under this model,=20 emphatically the pastor leads the church. Everything is top-down = from the=20 pastor who is anointed by God.=20

This autocratic leadership style has been evident, to varying = degrees,=20 in our movement. Although such a model of congregational = government may=20 appear lean and efficient, there are obvious dangers. This is = especially=20 so because such leaders tend to be so task oriented that they = neglect the=20 personal needs of followers. In addition, since all of us are = flawed, any=20 congregation or organization that bears the imprint of one = personality=20 will inevitably magnify and extend the weaknesses as well as the = strengths=20 of that particular leader. Finally, we must be concerned whenever = any=20 governmental structure is implemented without checks and balances = to=20 forestall abuses of power. As poor Jimmy Swaggart demonstrated, = even very=20 gifted and called leaders need real accountability that they might = continue to flourish under the blessing of God.=20

2 Confrontation leadership style is an approach to = problem-solving=20 which brings the problem out in the open with all parties = concerned, which=20 analyzes the problem in light of revelational truth, and which = brings=20 force to bear upon parties to accept recommended solutions. [8] A = good=20 example of this style is Paul=92s approach to resolving the = conflict between=20 Eudodia and Synteche in Philippians 4:2-3. This is a style often = used in=20 the Messianic context. Indeed, good leadership requires that we = employ=20 this style in appropriate ways at appropriate times. Not only = primary=20 congregational leaders, but also committee leaders, small-group = leaders,=20 and simply friends of conflicting parties ought at times to = intervene.=20 They will bring the conflict out into the open with all parties = involved,=20 analyze the problem in accord with Scripture, and not only = admonish but=20 also require the parties to accept the recommended solution. This = ought=20 not to be some sort of =93power trip=94, but a responsible use of = spiritual=20 authority in accord with Scripture, in the best interests of the = parties,=20 and with all sobriety.=20

3 The father-initiator leadership style is related ... to the = apostolic=20 style [and] uses the fact of the leader having founded the work as = a lever=20 for getting acceptance of influence. [9] Paul exhibits this style = in 1=20 Corinthians 4:14-15 where he appeals to the Corinthians for = compliance=20 because he has been their father in bringing the Good News to = them.=20 Founders of congregations often use this approach either = consciously or=20 unconsciously. It is effective, but ought not to be overused, as = it is=20 dangerously close to a guilt-based approach. Guilt is a very = efficient=20 short-term motivator, but people will get out from under guilt as = soon as=20 they can. Thus, overuse of guilt-tinged approaches inevitably = results in=20 membership turn over.=20

DIRECTIVE PAULINE LEADERSHIP STYLES

Moving across our continuum, we find that Paul used other = styles that=20 were less highly directive, but directive nonetheless.=20

4 Obligation-persuasion is a close cousin to the = father-initiator=20 style; indeed, all of these styles tend to overlap at points. The=20 obligation-persuasion leadership style is an appeal to followers = to obey=20 some recommended directives which persuades, not commands, = followers to=20 heed some advice, leaves the decision to do so in the hands of the = followers, but forces the followers to recognize their obligation = to the=20 leader due to past service by the leader to the follower and = strongly=20 implies that the follower owes the leader some debt and should = follow the=20 recommended advice as part of paying back the obligation and = finally=20 reflects the leader=92s strong expectation that the followers will = conform=20 to the persuasive advice. [10] The classic example of this = approach=20 appears in the book of Philemon where Paul urges Philemon to show = mercy to=20 Onesimus on the basis of Paul=92s prior ministry to him. Although = this is a=20 directive approach, it is effective because it protects and even=20 highlights the freedom accorded to the party being persuaded. = Again, in=20 practice, once must be careful not to abuse this style and use it = as a=20 form of guilt inducement that deprives the party being persuaded = of their=20 freedom of choice. Uses of power that deprive people of freedom of = choice=20 are forms of manipulation.=20

5 The father-guardian leadership style =93is similar to a = parent-child=20 relationship and has as its major concern protection and = encouragement for=20 followers.=94[11] Paul alludes directly to this style in 1 = Thessalonians=20 2:10-11. Like other approaches, this style is certainly open to = abuse. It=20 can easily deteriorate into a kind of paternalism that accords = power to=20 the father or mother figure while maintaining the followers in a=20 dependent, powerless, and immature condition. In other words, the=20 appropriateness of this style is contingent upon the maturity = level of the=20 followers. Keeping the followers immature to keep the leader in = charge is=20 abusive leadership.=20

NON-DIRECTIVE PAULINE LEADERSHIP STYLES

Paul was an amazing leader. That a person with so strong a = personality=20 was able to lead in non-directive ways is a sure evidence of the = mellowing=20 influence of the Holy Spirit! Clinton classifies two of Paul=92s = leadership=20 styles as non-directive.=20

6 The maturity-appeal leadership style counts on godly = expertise,=20 usually gained over a long period of time, an empathetic = identification=20 based on a common sharing of experience, and a recognition of the = force of=20 imitation modeling in influencing people in order to convince = people=20 toward a favorable acceptance of the leader=92s ideas. [12] Paul = employs=20 this style in 2 Corinthians 11:16-33 where he alludes to spiritual = experience, hard work, suffering for the gospel, deprivations of = all=20 kinds, and anguish on behalf of the congregations as an incentive = for the=20 Corinthians to heed his appeal. This kind of approach is effective = but=20 suffers from the dangers inherent in =93tooting one=92s own = horn=94, something=20 which Paul was loath to do. The wisdom of Proverbs (27:2) is good = advice:=20 =93Let another praise you and not your own mouth.=94=20

7 The nurse leadership style is characterized by gentleness and = sacrificial service and loving care which indicates that a leader = has=20 given up rights in order to not impede the nurture of those = following=20 him/her. [13] Paul refers to this style directly in 1 = Thessalonians 2:7.=20 This style is somewhat rare among male leaders in our culture, yet = it is=20 very much like Yeshua, the Good Shepherd who laid down his life = for the=20 sheep, the Servant who washed the disciples=92 feet to encourage = us to do=20 likewise. Often congregational shepherds seem to assume that the = sheep=20 exist for their benefit rather than that they exist for the sake = of the=20 sheep. Although we shepherds are not simply doormats without = rights,=20 neither are we kings seated high on lofty thrones. We have much to = learn=20 from the nurse leadership style, and we might well have greater = influence=20 with our congregations if we displayed these characteristics. This = will=20 especially be a challenge for highly goal-oriented leaders. But = then,=20 hasn=92t God called us not only to accomplish goals but also to = personal=20 growth?=20

HIGHLY NON-DIRECTIVE PAULINE LEADERSHIP STYLES

Finally, Paul demonstrates three highly non-directive = leadership=20 styles. It was undoubtedly through a combination of meditation = upon the=20 Scriptures, consideration of the example set by Yeshua, = illumination by=20 the Spirit, and training in the school of hard knocks that Paul, a = goal-oriented choleric personality, developed the flexibility to = employ=20 such a wide range of leadership styles.=20

8 The imitator leadership style refers to a conscious use of = imitation=20 modeling as a means for influencing followers. The user models = appropriate=20 thinking or behavior with an expectant view that followers must, = will, and=20 should be encouraged to follow his/her example. [14] Yeshua = certainly=20 employed this approach, as in the foot-washing lesson, when he = said =93I=20 have set you an example that you should do as I have done for = you=94 (John=20 13:15.) Peter alluded to this approach in his first letter, = stating=20 =93Messiah suffered for you, leaving you an example, that you = should follow=20 in his steps=94 (1 Peter 2:21), and John referred to it as well, = saying=20 =93whoever claims to live in him must walk as Yeshua did=94 (1 = John 2:6). For=20 Paul, this model is axiomatic and implicit in all his dealings = with his=20 congregations. For example, in his letter to the Philippians, he = refers to=20 following the example of Yeshua (2:5-12), and exhorts them to = follow his=20 own example (3:17; 4:9.)=20

Anyone who has ever raised a child knows that =93do as I say = not as I do=94=20 is a waste of breath and a self-delusion. Spiritual and moral = instruction=20 rises and falls upon the example set by its proponents. If we call = ourselves spiritual leaders, we must be able to unashamedly say = with the=20 apostle, =93be imitators of me as I am of Messiah=94 (1 Cor. = 11:1).=20

9 The consensus leadership style is the approach to leadership=20 influence which involves the group itself actively participating = in=20 decision making and coming to solutions acceptable to the whole = group. The=20 leaders must be skilled in bringing diverse thoughts together in = such a=20 way as to meet the whole group=92s needs. [15] This style is = evident in Acts=20 13 when the congregation in Antioch, guided by the Holy Spirit, = sent off=20 Paul and Barnabas to the ministry to which God had appointed them. = This=20 model of the body of Messiah being collectively involved in = ministry and=20 ministry decisions is somewhat eclipsed in American culture. Yet, = this=20 passage demonstrates that such a model is not incompatible with = strong=20 leaders (like Paul!) and supernatural charismatic intervention. = What makes=20 this model highly non-directive is the diffusion of influence = factors=20 throughout the group, rather than in just one person. It is = comforting to=20 know that even when we leaders choose to be non-directive in our=20 leadership style, God is still a directive God. He is able to get = his=20 message across!=20

10 The final highly non-directive leadership style which = Clinton=20 discerns is the indirect conflict leadership style, an approach to = problem=20 solving which requires discernment of spiritual motivation factors = behind=20 the problem, usually [resulting] in spiritual warfare without = direct=20 confrontation with the parties of the problem. [16] Paul alludes = to this=20 model in Ephesians 6:10-20, where he mentions our fighting not = against=20 human beings but against wicked spiritual forces in the heavenly = realm. We=20 employ this style whenever we approach conflicts or problems = through=20 prayer rather than through direct confrontation. An example would = be when=20 some potentially disruptive person comes into a congregational = meeting,=20 and someone in leadership senses that this person is sent by or at = least=20 vulnerable to the enemy. At such times, the person can often be = removed or=20 neutralized simply by shooting up a prayer and silently asserting = God=92s=20 authority against the darkness driving the person. (I trust I am = not the=20 only congregational leader who has experienced this!)=20

Power Forms In conjunction with the many leadership styles they = employ,=20 leaders use a variety of power forms, or influence means, to = influence=20 followers. The diagram on the following page provides a useful = overview of=20 the types of power forms employed by leaders.=20

Beginning from the left side of the diagram, we see that = leaders can=20 exercise influence unintentionally through something incidental = which=20 causes followers to be more responsive to them. However, our focus = is on=20 intentional means of influence, means of exercising power. Broadly = speaking, leaders exercise power in four ways: through force,=20 manipulation, authority and persuasion.=20

FORCE Looking at each way of exercising power in turn, we first = consider force, which Clinton defines as =93the use of physical = and psychic=20 influence means to gain compliance.=94 This is certainly one of = the more=20 distasteful leadership power forms, and one that crops up in = cultic and=20 occult groups. It is used even in our circles, however, such as = when some=20 disruptive persons must be taken by the arm and escorted out of a = meeting.=20 This is certainly a form of physical force. And what of those who = practice=20 the phenomenon of =93slaying in the Spirit=94 as a means of = boosting their=20 influence with those who experience it? Is this not some form of,=20 generically speaking, psychic means to gain compliance?[17] = Because this=20 kind of spiritual activity involves involuntary compliance, I = categorize=20 it as a form of force, and as such it differs form the influence = leaders=20 exercise because others see them to be spiritually gifted.=20

Figure 2.=20

Adapted Tree diagram for Influence, Power, Authority = (unavailable at=20 this time)[18]=20

MANIPULATION=20

A manipulative power form is a means whereby a leader gains = compliance=20 from a follower without the follower being aware of the leader's=20 intentions. Therefore, the follower is not accorded freedom of = choice or=20 moral responsibility in the decision. All of us employ this = influence=20 means more than we realize. We do so whenever we get people to do = what we=20 want them to without explaining why. Although this is not = necessarily=20 evil, this power form becomes abusive when we gain compliance from = people=20 who would not comply if they knew what we are up to, or when we = involve=20 them in ends contrary to their own standards.=20

AUTHORITY=20

The authority power forms express themselves in at least five = ways. In=20 the diagram, as we move from the left to the right, the forms = become more=20 user-friendly.=20

1 Coercive authority involves "using influence means such as = threat of=20 force or of punishment."[19] Despite our distaste for the term, = Hersey and=20 Blanchard indicate that a follower low in readiness generally = needs strong=20 directive behavior in order to become productive.... The behavior = of=20 people at low levels of readiness seems to be influenced by the = awareness=20 that costs will be incurred if they do not learn and follow the = rules of=20 the game."=20

[20] Most parents use this approach with their children, and it = seems=20 more appropriate to the workplace than to the congregational = setting. Yet=20 even in the workplace, there are checks and balances on this = leadership=20 style. Although slaves (equivalent to today's employees) are told = to obey=20 their earthly masters (equivalent to today's employers) with = respect and=20 fear, masters are also told to not threaten their slaves = (Ephesians=20 6:5-9). This text stigmatizes the use of fear and intimidation, = varieties=20 of coercive power, as management tools. People and organizational = cultures=20 that routinely use threats and intimidation to gain compliance = abuse their=20 followers, create tremendous turn over problems for themselves, = and in=20 reality undermine their own authority. More to the point, such = leaders and=20 systems risk the disapproval of the One to whom all leaders are=20 accountable.=20

As a subset of this category, I find myself utterly opposed to = those=20 leaders and leadership structures that seek to gain compliance by = making=20 people feel bad about themselves. God does not operate this way: = He never=20 seeks to get us to do what He wants by making us feel bad about = ourselves,=20 although He surely does lay out for us the consequences of our = rebellious=20 acts. Making people feel bad to get them to do something good is a = form of=20 psychological coercion which, though widespread, seems untrue to = the=20 character of God. How much more in accord with the values of the = kingdom=20 it would be for us to protect people's sense of well-being while = seeking=20 to influence them for the work of the kingdom.=20

I remember with admiration a recent conversation with a = congregational=20 leader who makes it a practice to not make people feel guilty when = they=20 decline involving themselves in some congregational project. He = responds=20 by saying, "I understand, We all lead such busy lives. Maybe some = other=20 time." Is it not better to lead in this way, expecting people to = offer=20 themselves freely rather than subtly coercing people into doing = what we=20 want them to do? Judges 5:2 expresses this well: "When the princes = in=20 Israel take the lead, when the people willingly offer themselves = =96 praise=20 the LORD!"=20

2 Using induced authority, "a leader gains compliance by using=20 influence means of promise of reward or some gain for the = follower."[21]=20 This seems to be God's favorite means of influence. Visionary=20 congregational leaders would do well to employ this strategy with = their=20 people, painting a credible portrait of the anticipated = satisfactions that=20 await those who will put their hand to the plow in accomplishing = what the=20 congregation is called to do. This ought not to be viewed as some = sort of=20 bribery. After all, bribery involves getting people to violate = appropriate=20 standards of conduct in exchange for the promise of gain. Induced=20 authority sets before people appropriate rewards and incentives = for=20 involvement in worthy goals. And the best of these rewards are = those which=20 are intrinsic to the projects being undertaken. We ought not to = despise=20 this form of influence and motivation. Even Yeshua did what he did = "for=20 the joy that was set before him" (Heb. 12:2).=20

3 Legitimate authority=20

is the form of power in which a leader obtains compliance by = using=20 influence pressure consonant with common expectations of the role = or=20 positions held by the follower and leader." [22] Many of us who = allow=20 ourselves to be called "rabbi" fall heir to this kind of = authority, due to=20 the great respect and influence accorded to rabbis in Jewish = culture.=20 Similarly, in many settings, the role of congregational leader, = rabbi, or=20 pastor comes with built-in authority, and members of such = congregations=20 stand ready to accord respect to the person filling that role.=20

Of course, people in such positions can erode their authority = through=20 inappropriate behavior. They or their surrogates may insist upon = respect=20 and compliance by virtue of their position, but if their conduct = fails to=20 sustain the respect their position accords them, their demands for = compliance become a form of coercion.=20

4 Competent authority is a form of power in which a leader = obtains or=20 can expect (but not demand) compliance by virtue of acknowledged = expertise=20 in some peld of endeavor. The authority is limited to that field = of=20 endeavor." [24] Using myself as an example, because of my = reputation in=20 the field of music, I can expect that personnel in my congregation = will=20 heed my directions on musical decisions. That does not mean they = will=20 accord equal respect to my decorating ideas!=20

Competent authority and legitimate authority have a converse = side as=20 well. In Jewish culture, the rabbi is accorded great position = power, or=20 legitimate authority by virtue of his competence in the lore and = lifestyle=20 revered by the people. To the degree that our leaders fail to = demonstrate=20 an equivalent level of personal holiness and learning, we = undermine our=20 credibility when we take the name "rabbi." For this reason, more = often=20 than not I am uncomfortable with the title, although I defer to my = congregation's preferences in this matter. On the positive side, = bearing=20 such a revered title is a constant incentive to humility, to = personal=20 growth and to study.=20

5 Personal authority is a form of power in which a leader = obtains or=20 expects compliance (but cannot demand it) by virtue of the = followers=20 recognition of the leader's personal characteristics." [25] This = kind of=20 power includes the personality, sincerity and charisma of the = leader, his=20 connections with influential and powerful people, and his natural=20 abilities, spiritual gifts, and acquired skills. All of these = contribute=20 to making the person attractive and influential in the lives of = followers,=20 PERSUASION The persuasive power form refers to any influence means = such as=20 arguments, appeals or exhortations whereby the leader gains = compliance of=20 the follower yet protects the freedom of the follower to exercise = moral=20 responsibility. This approach underscores all of Scripture. = Indeed,=20 even God does not compel compliance, and attests through the = prophets how=20 his people consistently resisted his appeals. Perhaps this truth = is best=20 seen in Yeshua's weeping indictment of Jerusalem: "how often would = I have=20 gathered you to me, ... but you would not" (Matt. 23:37).=20

Even though persuasion is all the way over on the right- hand = side of=20 our diagram, I find it still subject to abuse when persuasive = people,=20 gifted in argumentation fail to accord to their listeners the = freedom to=20 say "No." I remember a believing friend, thirty years ago, who was = such an=20 intimidating arguer and proponent that she won too many arguments = on the=20 force of her personality alone. This is not the kind of persuasion = which=20 God commends. Whenever people are denied their rightful freedoms, = even=20 their freedom to disagree, abuse occurs.=20

Spiritual Authority: Breakfast of God's Champions One of = Clinton's key=20 insights is this: "effective leaders value spiritual authority as = a=20 primary power base."[26] We see from an examination of Figure 2. = that it=20 takes a whole range of power forms to lead God's people, but it = should be=20 the goal of every leader to increasingly lead his people toward = maturity.=20 This means moving them toward the right in the power forms to = which they=20 respond.=20

God's leaders should be leading God's people to respond to = spiritual=20 authority. But what exactly is spiritual authority? It is "the = right to=20 influence conferred upon a leader by followers because of their = perception=20 of spirituality in that leader."[27] There are three ways = spiritual=20 authority is developed. First, as leaders have deep experiences = with God=20 in which they discover His sufficiency, they develop an = experiential=20 knowledge of God, leading to spiritual authority. Second, as the = Spirit=20 conforms leaders more and more to the image of Messiah, the fruit = of the=20 Spirit and character of the Son become more and more manifest. = This also=20 confers spiritual authority. Third, when leaders demonstrate = gifted power=20 in ministry, when they demonstrate the anointing of God upon their = efforts, they have spiritual authority among their followers.=20

Characteristics and Limits of Spiritual Authority Clinton = stresses six=20 characteristics of spiritual authority.[28]=20

First, spiritual authority is delegated by God and comes from = Messiah=20 and his Spirit working in us. He legitimates our authority, and we = are=20 accountable to him for how we exercise it.=20

Second, spiritual authority rests upon an experiential power = base. It=20 comes from an ongoing relationship with God and the accumulated = wisdom and=20 development this entails. The Spirit enables followers to detect a = leader=20 who knows God, as opposed to one who simply knows about God.=20

Third, spiritual authority relies upon persuasion. Such leaders = are=20 virtually always gifted in word gifts such as teaching and = prophecy. They=20 exercise legitimate and personal authority. To have longevity, = such=20 authority must be buttressed by competent authority.=20

Fourth, the ultimate aim of the leader is the good of the = followers,=20 not just the task before them. Paul speaks of this in 2 = Corinthians 10:8=20 where he refers to his authority to build the believers up, not to = tear=20 them down. Would to God that more leaders lived by this credo!=20

Fifth, spiritually authority is best evaluated over time as one = assesses the spiritual growth of those being led. This means that = coercive=20 and manipulative forms of power, although effective in the short = term,=20 simply reproduce like qualities in followers, and fail to produce = real=20 Messiah-like maturity. On the other hand, leaders who exercise = spiritual=20 authority will produce followers who in turn make mature choices = and=20 mature disciples.=20

Last, a leader who truly operates in spiritual authority will = recognize=20 that his authority comes from the God to whom he is accountable. = Such a=20 leader relies upon God as his vindicator. He knows that those who = disobey=20 his leadership ultimately are accountable to God. This kind of = leader is=20 neither insecure nor defensive.=20

When Power is Abused Two recent books on the theme of spiritual = abuse =96=20 The Subtle Power of Spiritual Abuse by David Johnson and Jeff = VanVonderen=20 (Minneapolis: Bethany House, 1991) and Faith That Hurts, Faith = That Heals=20 by Stephen Arterburn and Jack Felton (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, = 1992) =96=20 have helped many to recognize and respond to abuses of power in=20 congregational and organizational contexts. These books are = reviewed=20 expertly elsewhere in Kesher, but a few comments are in order to = integrate=20 their insights with the studies I have summarized.=20

Johnson and VanVonderen define spiritual abuse as follows:=20

Spiritual abuse is the mistreatment of a person who is in need = of help,=20 support or greater spiritual empowerment, with the result of = weakening,=20 undermining or decreasing that person's spiritual empowerment.[29] = This=20 definition of abuse is relationship centered. As leaders, we dare = not=20 forget that God gives us responsibility not simply for tasks, but = also for=20 people. Sadly, many spiritual leaders are so task oriented that = their=20 people's well-being loses importance.=20

Johnson and VanVonderen state that spiritual abuse can occur = "when a=20 leader uses his or her spiritual position to control or dominate = another=20 person."[30] They expand upon this focus, showing how leaders can = treat=20 people as less than people in pursuit of "the Lord's work." It is = true=20 that Yeshua spoke much of the harvest, but we also find Ya'akov = (James=20 5:4-5) excoriating those who abuse the harvesters.=20

Leaders of God's people should balance concern for ministry = tasks with=20 an equal concern for people, expressed in protection of their = rights,=20 dignity, and growth. When leaders feel powerful and their people = feel=20 powerless, something is desperately wrong.=20

In their book, Arterburn and Felton concentrate on religious = addiction,=20 "a relationship with a religion that allows the religion, not the=20 relationship with God, to control a person's life."[31] This would = also=20 include allowing spiritual leaders or organizations to usurp God's = role in=20 one's life. This occurs more easily whenever the leader or = organization is=20 clearly concerned for the Lord's work. They attract high-quality = people=20 who are highly motivated spiritually and easily prone to worship = the work=20 of the Lord instead of the Lord of the work. The leader or = organization=20 embodying that work too often becomes an idol to be served and = protected.=20 As Arterburn and Felton state:=20

Persons connected with a harmful faith system must be able to = work=20 under the authoritarian, manipulative rule of the head of the = family or=20 organization. They become order takers and must exhibit blind = faith in the=20 leader [who] becomes so strong that he or she replaces God in the = lives of=20 those in the dysfunctional faith system.[32]=20

So then, let us never let the work become more important to us = than=20 people: Messiah died for people, not projects. And let us never = allow=20 ourselves or our leaders to usurp the role of God in the lives of = the=20 people whom we are called to serve. They serve God, not us: and = God calls=20 us to serve them. We serve them and him best when we keep this in = mind.=20

Stuart Dauermann chairs the UMJC Theology Committee and leads = Ahavat=20 Zion Synagogue in Beverly Hills. He is on the Editorial Staff of = Kesher.=20

End Notes:=20

Dr. James Robert Clinton. Leadership Emergence Theory: A = Self-Study=20 Manual for Analyzing the Development of a Christian Leader. = (Altadena,=20 CA: Barnabas Publishers, 1989) p. 36=20
Hersey and Blanchard define power as "influence potential - = the=20 resource that enables a leader to gain compliance or commitment = form=20 ohters." Paul Hersey and Kenneth H. Blanchard. Management of=20 Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources. Fifth = edition.=20 (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988) p. 202
Ibid., p. 146
Dr. James Robert Clinton. Leadership PerspectivesL How to = Study the=20 Bible for Leadership Insights. (Altadena, CA: Barnabas = Publishers, 1993)=20 p. 42
Hersey and Blanchard term their leadership model "Situational = Leadership: and suggest that "there is no one best way to = influence=20 people. which leadership style a person shuld use with = individuals or=20 groups depends on the readiness level of the people the leader = is=20 attempting to influence." 1988, p. 171
Clinton, 1993, p. 46
Graduate workshop at Fuller Theological Seminary. June, 1996. =
Clinton, 1993, p. 47
Ibid.
Ibid. p. 48
Ibid. p. 49
Ibid. p. 50
Ibid. p. 51
Ibid. p. 52
Ibid.
Ibid.
Here we are using the term "psychic: stripped of its = fortune-teller=20 connotations, but rather as pertaining to something outside of = natural=20 or scientific knowledge, or broadly speaking, anything int he = spiritual=20 realm.
Based on Robert Clinton's adaptation of a schema developed by = Dennis=20 Wrong. Clinton, 1993, p. 54. Used by permission.
Clinton, 1993, p. 56
Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p. 214
Clinton, 1993, p. 56
Ibid.
Ibid. p. 57
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid. p. 58
Ibid.
Ibid. p. 60
Johnson and Van Vonderen, 1991, p. 29
Ibid.
Arterburn and Felton, 1992, p. 21
Ibid. p. 194